still working on my Lifewaves paper and thinking about whether to publish my thesis...
Corded Ware Culture in Eastern Europe: grave-sets and identity (MPhil-seminar)
unpublished manuscript (early 2008)
Unpublished paper; a general comparison of grave goods found in Eastern European Corded Ware Culture single grave burials and a possible interpretation for the similarities (cf. Fokkens 1999).
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RMA Seminar Personhood and Personal Identity Graves of the Corded Ware Culture in Poland and the Baltic Region Grave set or setting our own grave? Jos Kleijne B.A. S0442011 Introduction: This paper presents an overview on the burial practices of the Corded Ware Culture in Poland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. The main purpose of this paper is to see whether a pattern can be discerned from the grave goods in this particular period. For the Bell Beaker Culture the existence of such ‘grave-set’ has been argued for recently (Fokkens 2005). The apparent continuity between Corded Ware culture and Bell Beaker Culture in the Netherlands (Lanting & Van der Waals, 1974), made us realise that perhaps a similar phenomenon could be argued for the Corded Ware Culture. This will be investigated in this paper. Geographical Issues: The region we discuss here will be presented in a way, which does justice to the extensiveness of the areas. The Baltic will be discussed separately and the modern country of Poland will be divided in Małopolska and Kujavia. This division has been made earlier by many authors (e.g. Machnik, 1970; Kempisy, 1978; Furholt, 2003). For the region under study and the particular areas involved, I refer here to Figure 1. Data Problems The raw data of this study consists of graves. These graves have not in all cases been excavated properly, so a discrepancy could arise between particular regions. The graves were mainly found during rescue-excavations and only large artefacts were collected. When the research is purely scientific of nature, as the case in Żernkiki Górne (Małopolska), lots of smaller artefacts as beads and small flint flakes, were found. The second problem we encounter is the low degree of publication of the results of excavations where graves were found. As every archaeologist knows, not all excavated finds are published properly. On top of that sometimes the graves were referred to, but in some cases no analysis took place and no further reference was given (as in Kriiska, 2000). Furthermore, a problem is the availability (and sometimes the readability (I try to read Polish and Estonian, but Russian was a bridge too far)) of the articles and books in which the graves were analysed. This was much the case for the Baltic region, and Estonia in particular (see Appendix). Next problem I encountered was the dating of the graves. Many graves have not been C-14 dated (yet), and when the grave goods consist only of some flints or some bone tools, it is difficult, so not to say impossible to ascribe them to the Corded Ware Culture or some other culture. This was much the case in the Baltic region as well, and a notorious example comes from Zvejnieki, where in total more than 300 graves were found, ranging from the Mesolithic to the Bronze Age, but none of them were dated by methods of radiocarbon. Only by pottery association of two of these graves, we could find evidence for Corded Ware Culture burials. Last problem I want to mention was the usability of a single database for this research. I tried to put it up, and I tried to use it for a while, but I think the amount of differences in the data (the graves themselves and the way they were published) makes it almost impossible to use it. Poland: Poland, because of its size and differences in data, had been divided in northern Poland (Kujavia and the Rzucewo-region) and southern Poland (Małopolska region). The region between these two areas is a region where there are not many finds on Corded Ware Culture, and especially not of graves of this period. This region will therefore not be discussed in this paper. The Rzucewo-region will be addressed in relation to the Baltic phenomenon later in this paper, so it is not included in the discussion of the Polish material. This part of the study will focus on the North Polish region of Kujavia and the Southern Polish region of Małopolska. The period before the Corded Ware Culture: Kujavia In Kujavia, the Funnel Beaker Culture (FBC) and the Globular Amphorae Culture (GAC) preceded the Corded Ware Culture. The chronological development of these two cultures had only since the 1990’s been established by C-14 dates (Koskó, 1991). Koskó presents a model of synchronous development and co-existence of both cultures (1991, 99). He bases his theory on a wide variety of data, ranging from “… (A) radiocarbon dates, (B) stratigraphic arrangements, (C) instances of coexistence features of both systems and single artefacts, or (D) within object (assemblages), and (E) exogenous features ranked as intercultural synchronisers.” (Koskó, 1991, 88) The period of co-existence of both cultures is divided in six stages, which increasing amount of assimilation and integration (as material culture shows according to Koskó, 1991). What these changes mean, however, and how these relate to “the peoples behind the pots” is in this case not clear. I think a total reassessment of these cultures and their material assemblages would increase the clarity of this period in cultural history. The appearance of the Corded Ware Culture in Kujavia is mostly seen as a continuous development from the Funnel Beaker Culture and the Globular Amphorae Culture onwards. Koskó (1997) sets the first appearance of the Corded Ware Culture in Kujavia at 2600 conv. bc. Furholt (2003) on the other hand, having much more dates available and a much greater scope on the phenomenon of Corded Ware Cultures, sees the Corded Ware Culture emerging from 3090-2920 cal. BC (Bln-1812: 4395 +/- 70 BP; Krusza Zamkowa grave 3) onwards. I’m inclined to accept the date that Furholt (2003) states, because of the fact that in other regions the phenomenon intends to start at 3000 cal. BC as well (see below), and the study by Furholt (2003) is the most recent available, containing the most recently calibrated C-14 dates. Małopolska In Małopolska, the Corded Ware Culture was preceded by the Funnel Beaker Culture as well. The development from this culture into the Corded Ware Culture was investigated by Machnik (1966). He sees influences from GAC and FBC in the pottery types of the early Corded Ware Culture. This is, according to Machnik (1970), best seen in the presence of the so-called ‘Złota-group’ which covers the transition from FBC to CWC in the Małopolska region (cf. Furholt, 2003). The presence of Herringbone decoration on beakers and so-called “Thüringer Amphoren” are indications of cultural continuity (at least in pottery manufacturing) between FBC, GAC and CWC. The first appearance of Corded Ware Culture in Małopolska, was until recently just known by relative chronology (cf. Machnik, 1970). Absolute dates, by means of radiocarbon dating, emerged mostly in the 1990’s. The publication by Furholt (2003) gives the most recent update on the chronology of Małopolska. Furholt (2003) sees the emergence of the Corded Ware Culture in Małopolska starting around 3000 cal. BC. The oldest C-14 dates come from Zielona grave 3 (Ki-7949: 4310 +/- 70 BP) and Wereszczyca barrow 1 (Ki-6301: 4305 +/- 45 BP). The Corded Ware Culture: - The Corded Ware Culture in general The Corded Ware Culture in Eastern Europe traditionally was seen as intrusive, consisting of “…the large-scale movement of ethnic groups from the steppe regions of the southern Ukraine to central and eastern Europe.” (Milisauskas & Kruk, 1989, 435; Kristiansen, 1989) The evidence of this, as they argue comes from the absence of settlement data, the resemblance of burial practices and pottery styles in comparison the Pit-Grave culture of the southern Ukrainian and Russian steppes (Milisauskas & Kruk, 1989, 435). As we shall see in this paper, the absence of settlements on which Corded Ware Culture material had been found, can be seen from a different perspective. Kujavia The Corded Ware Culture in Kujavia starts at around 3000 cal. BC. As we have seen, it is nowadays considered as a continuous development from the FBC and the GAC. The continuous presence of elements of these earlier cultures in the Corded Ware Culture period, such as globular amphorae, which Furholt (2003) dates until 2500 cal BC, are seen as the material expression of different co-existent groups of “FBC people”, “GAC people” and “CWC people”. But the dates of this late FBC come from a settlement (Opatowice I), while the dates of the CWC are mostly apparent in burials. This difference in context of the finds, could explain the apparent continuity of FBC material culture in Kujavia. The material culture of settlements in this period differs to a great extent from that of burials. That can be explained, as in the Corded Ware Culture we see the emergence of a new burial form, the single grave. Therefore, I think it is not strange to see continuity in settlement material culture, and changes in material culture related to burials. Not much is known of the people of the Corded Ware Culture. The research mainly focussed on graves and beaker typology (cf. Machnik, 1970). Małopolska In Małopolska, the Corded Ware Culture starts around 3000 cal. BC as well. The so-called ‘Złota-group’ presents the first appearance of the Corded Ware phenomenon, with still some elements of the Funnel Beaker Culture and the Globular Amphorae Culture in it. This transition can mainly be seen in pottery forms (four ears on amphorae) and decoration patterns (decoration in bands). Also in this region certain settlements of the FBC were contemporaneous with CWC burials. This phenomenon is due to differences in context, as I explained earlier this paper in relation to the situation in Kujavia. The fact that there obviously were settlements from the period in which the Corded Ware Culture was present, puts the migration hypothesis (cf. Gimbutas, 1980; Kristiansen, 1989) under pressure. The Corded Ware Culture Burials – Grave Sets? Kujavia In Kujavia the graves of the Corded Ware Culture are all flat graves or niche graves. Niche graves have two round compartments of different depth, of which the lower one was used for the burial and the grave goods. The upper part was used as the niche (fig 2.). All graves which could be dated (12 in total) are either male or sex unknown. No obvious female graves have been found. Chronologically, Furholt (2003) sees a development in material culture of the graves (fig. 3). In the first period, ranging from about 3000 cal. BC, a grave set could be found. A-type beakers, “knochenplatten”, “steppenelemente” (bow and arrowheads) and flint blades were present in this period. From 2800 BC the decoration motifs of the beakers changes in Herringbone-decorations, and ‘flower-pots’ emerge. From 2600 BC we find battleaxes and from 2500 BC amphorae have been found and the decoration on the beakers becomes more complex. The orientation of the graves, mainly N-S or W-E, in this period was not related to chronological differences. Małopolska In Małopolska the graves are all flat graves or niche graves as well. The graves are found alone, or in cemeteries, which usually have a long term history. The cemetery of Żerniki Górne, consisting of 142 graves, was planned near a cluster of late megalithic constructions. On top of the cemetery, a barrow form the Trzciniec period (Bronze Age) was found. The orientation of the graves in Małopolska was randomly. A pattern could not be discerned. Furholt (2003) collected radiocarbon dates of 45 graves. He sees the Corded Ware appearing around 3000 cal. BC. From this period beakers and amphorae are known. Machnik (1970) interprets the archaeological record from this period as a special group which he calls the ‘Złota-group’ and forms an onset towards the Corded Ware Culture itself. From 2600 cal. BC Furholt (2003) sees the emergence of the ‘flower-pot’, which then becomes an extra component of the grave assemblages of the Corded Ware Culture. During the entire period, multiple changes occur in decoration motifs, and pot shapes. I will not go into them in detail, because it is irrelevant for the question whether there is a particular grave-set discernable in the region of Małopolska. The material culture which, next to pottery, is found in the graves does not change much, during the entire period. Bone pins, stone adzes, flint axes, beads, flint blades, arrowheads, “knochenplatten” and the first copper artefacts appear from the onset of the Corded Ware Culture around 3000 cal. BP. If there is a division in the first appearances of these objects, it hitherto has not been found yet. The presence of beakers, a (partly polished) flint axe and/or a stone adze, flint arrowheads, flint artefacts, a whetstone, bone implements and beads in different configurations, in mostly all graves, lets me conclude that there was a grave set present in this period for this region. The Baltic Region: The period before the Corded Ware Culture and the Corded Ware Culture in general: The period before the Corded Ware Culture in the Baltic Region is characterized by the presence of Early Neolithic Narva Culture, which I think is somewhat similar to Swifterbant Culture in the Netherlands. Around 4000 BC Combed Ware and Pitted Ware Cultures emerge in Estonia and Latvia. The Narva Culture remains present in Lithuania. Lang (1992, 39) sees the emergence of the Combed Ware culture in Estonia as a migration of tribes from the east, as the material culture differs much to that of the Narva Culture. The emergence of the Corded Ware culture in these regions is interpreted in similar ways. Lang (1992) sees a migration for this period and culture as well. This interpretation is, I think, much based on the influence of Kristiansen’s work in the east on Corded Ware Culture migrations (e.g. Kristiansen, 1989a; 1989b). Loze (1997) sees the emergence of Corded Ware Culture in Latvia in the process of infiltration of “…very small groups of people in to the local culture medium…” (Loze, 1997, 143) From the Combed Ware Culture (so, before the emergence of the Corded Ware Culture), two graves are known (Kriiska, 1996, 364-365). Both graves were found at the site of Riigikula I, under houses of this culture. One is that of a man, and another of a child. No grave goods were present (idem). The whole concept of Rzucewo Culture, or Häffküstenkultur, is based on a continuous development of native Narva Culture and the acceptation and infiltration of Corded Ware Culture. The Corded Ware Culture Burials – Grave Sets? The Baltic Region Estonia: In Estonia more than 33 graves of the Corded Ware Culture are known. For this study, it only was possible to examine one grave. This grave is the grave of Ardu (Indreko, 1939). It consists of a single grave in crouched position. The deceased was accompanied by a battleaxe (Boat-axe), beaker potsherds, multiple bone pins, a flint axe and flint blades. Latvia: For Latvia we are facing similar problems. The amount of known graves lies much higher, 234. But here, as well as the non-availability of publications, the uncertainty of dates plays a role. I found only three graves which could be dated by means of pottery analogy. Radiocarbon dates are totally absent. Two graves at the large, but mostly undated, cemetery of Zvejnieki (Furholt, 2003; Zagorskis, 2004) come from the Corded Ware Culture. Grave 137 was completely destroyed, the orientation is unknown, the body lay in a crouched position, facing E. The sex of the deceased was unknown. The grave good present were an amphora, a bone owl, and chisel. Grave 186 had a WSW orientation, the body lay in a crouched position, the facing was unknown, because of the absence of the head. It was a child, who had two antler plaquettes near his thigh (fig. 4 & 5). A grave found at Sarkani (Loze, 1997), of which the orientation, position, facing and sex were unknown, contained a wrist guard, and A-type battleaxe and fragments of an amphora. Lithuania: Form Lithuania, there are more graves which could be examined. From a total of 55, there is information available on 13 graves. The overview on these graves can all be found in the appendix. This is obviously not enough data for the analysis of the patterning of grave goods, and the question whether we can see these as a grave-set. When we see the finds of Ardu, for example, against the light of graves in Poland, however, we can see some similarities. The presence of a flint axe, a stone axe (in this case a battleaxe), some minor flint artefacts and the crouched deposition of the body, are all in a sense familiar to the grave-set in Małopolska. Conclusion: Concluding, we can say that for the regions Kujavia and Małopolska, we find evidence for the presence of a particular grave-set. How this grave-set was structured, and what values and meanings were given to these sets, should be the subject of future study. For the Baltic region, we can not say whether there was a grave-set present. At least, we can not see it, because of several reasons. Some finds hint towards a similar phenomenon as in Poland. References: Butrimas, A., (1992). Corded Pottery Culture graves from Lithuania. Praehistorica, XIX(Schnurkeramik Symposium 1990), 307-11. Fokkens, H., (2005). Voorbeeldige voorouders: graven naar de ideeënwereld van prehistorische boerengemeenschappen, Leiden: Leiden University Press. Furholt, M., (2003). Die absolutchronologische Datierung der Schnurkeramik in Mitteleuropa und Südskandinavien, Bonn: Verlag Dr. Rudolf Habelt GMBH. Gimbutas, M., (1980). The Kurgan wave #2 (c.3400-3200 BC) into Europe and the following transformation of culture. Journal of Indo-European Studies, 8, 273-315 Indreko, R., (1939). Ein Hockergrab in Ardu, Ksp. Kose, in Litterarum Societas Esthonica, 1838-1938. Liber Saecularis Tartu: Societas Esthonica, 185-200. Kempisty, A., (1978). Schylek neolitu i poczatek epoki brazu na wyzynie malopolskiej w swietle badan nad kopcami, Warschau: Wydawnictwa Universtetu Warsawskiego. Kośko, A., (1991). Globular Amphorae Culture versus Funnel Beaker Culture, in New Tendencies in Studies of Globular Amphorae Culture Warsaw: Warsaw University, 87112. Kriiska, A., (1996). Stone Age Settlements in the Lower Reaches of the Narva River, NorthEastern Estonia. Journal of the European Study Group on Physical, Chemical, Biological and Mathematical Techniques Applied to Archaeology, 51, 359-72. Kriiska, A., (2000). Corded Ware culture sites in North-Eastern Estonia, in De temporibus antiquissimis ad honorem Lembit Jaanits. Tallinn, 59-79. Kristiansen, K., (1989). Prehistoric Migrations - the Case of the Single Grave and Corded Ware Cultures. Journal of Danish Archaeology, 8, 211-25. Lang, V., (1992). Estonian Prehistory: Some Results of Investigation. Journal of the European Study Group on Physical, Chemical, Biological and Mathematical Techniques Applied to Archaeology, 37, 35-49. Lanting, J. N. & J. D. v. d. Waals, (1976). Beaker culture relations in the Lower Rhine Basin, in Glockenbecher Symposion Oberried 1974, eds. J. N. Lanting & J. D. v. d. Waals Bussum/Haarlem: Fibula-Van Dishoeck, 1-80. Loze, I., (1992). Corded Pottery Culture in Latvia. Praehistorica, XIX(Schnurkeramik Symposium 1990), 313-20. Loze, I., (1997). The Early Corded Ware culture in the territory of Latvia, in Early corded ware culture the A-horizon, fiction or fact? : international symposium in Jutland, 2nd7th May 1994, ed. P. Siemen Esbjerg: Esbjerg Museum, 135-45. Machnik, J., (1966). Étude sur la civilisation de la céramique cordée en Petite Pologne: Résumé, in Studia nad kultura ceramiki sznurowej w Małopolsce Wrocław: Ossolineum, 207-15. Machnik, J., (1970). The corded ware culture, in The Neolithic of Poland Warszawa: Ossolineum, 383-420. Milisauskas & Kruk, (1989). Neolithic economy in central Europe. Journal of World Prehistory, 3, 403-46. Zagorskis, F., (2004). Zvejnieki (Northern Latvia) Stone Age Cemetery, Oxford: Archaeopress. Figures: Figure 1: Research Areas Figure 2: Photo of a Niche Grave (Krzyz) (Tunia, 1997) Figure 3: overview of the beaker chronology in Kujavia (Furholt, 2003, 134) Figure 4: Zejvnieki Grave 186 (Zagorskis, 2004, 48) Figure 5: Zejvnieki Grave 186, the antler plaquettes (Zagorskis, 2004, 68) Appendix: After Zagorskis (2004), Loze (1992; 1997), Kriiska (1996), Lang (1992) and Butrimas (1992): Estonia: Naakamäe: MN/LN Kõljaja: MN/LN Tamula: LN Sope: Boat-Axe culture Ardu: Boat-Axe culture -Grave 1, Kunila: Boat-Axe culture Riigiküla I: Combed WC Latvia: Zvejnieki: MN/LN 120 (Zagorskis, 2004; Loze, 1997) most dates uncertain 1 3 24 ? 1 ? 2 (Jaanits, 1965) (Jaanits, 1973) (Jaanits, 1957) (Jaanits, 1952; 1983) (Indreko, 1939) (Jaanits, 1952; 1983) (Kriiska, 1996) book not available! book not available! book not available! books not available! books not available! dates too early ECWC (according to Loze, 1997): -Grave 137, N orientation, crouched position, facing E, sex unknown; A-amphora, bone owl, and chisel. -Grave 186, ? orientation, flat position, facing SW, sex unknown; two wrist guards. Kreici: MN/LN 23 (Zagorskis, 1961) book not available! Jurkova: MN/LN 7 (Vankina & Cimermane, 1969) book not available! Kvapani II: LN 15 (Loze, 1979) book not available! Abora I: LN 61 (Loze, 1979) book not available! Sarkani: ECWC 1 (Loze, 1992; 1997) -Grave 1, ? orientation, ? position, ? facing, sex unknown; wrist guard, A-type battleaxe and fragments of an amphora. Krigani: ? Andrini: ? Aizupe: ? Kandava: ? Tamas: ? Tojati: ? Zvardes Grinerti: ? Lithauania: Kretuonas I: LN Birzulis: LN Meskos galva: CPC Alksnyne: CPC 6 6 4 1 (Butrimas & Girininkas, 1980) (Butrimas & Girininkas, 1980) (Bohne-Fischer, 1941) (Engel, 1935) book not available! book not available! book not available! book not available! ? ? ? ? ? ? ? (Loze, 1992) (Loze, 1992) (Loze, 1992) (Loze, 1992) (Loze, 1992) (Loze, 1992) (Loze, 1992) no further reference no further reference no further reference no further reference no further reference no further reference no further reference Juodkrante: CPC 4 (Engel, 1935) book not available! Rasyte: CPC ? (Butrimas, 1992) no further reference Lankupiai: CPC 1 (Bezzenbecher, 1900) book not available! Kurmaiciai: CPC 3 (Kulikauskas et al., 1961) book not available! Resketa: CPC ? (Butrimas, 1992) no further reference Sakyna: CPC 3 (Kulikauskas et al., 1961) book not available! Grinkiskis: CPC 3 (Kulikauskas et al., 1961) book not available! Pastuva: CPC 1 (Riemantiene, 1984) book not available! Resketa: ? ? (Butrimas, 1992) no further reference Versvai: CPC 1 (Butrimas, 1992) -Grave 22, WNW orientation, crouched position, facing SW, male, no grave goods? Plinkaigalis: CPC/BCC 4 (Butrimas & Kazakevicius, 1985) book not available! -Grave 1, N orientation, crouched position, facing W, sex unknown, no grave goods -Grave 2, N orientation, crouched position, facing E, sex unknown, flint scraper and 2 blades -Grave 3, N orientation, crouched position, facing unknown, female, stone (flint?) axe -Grave 4, SSE orientation, crouched position, facing WNW, female, no grave goods Spiginas: CPC 1 (Butrimas, 1992) -Grave 2, 4080 +/- 120 BP (GIN 5570), strongly crouched position, no grave goods? Duonkalnis: BCC 14 (Butrimas, 1985; 1992) -Grave 1, N orientation, flat position, female, red ochre -Grave 2, WSW orientation, flat position, male, double grave (with 3), red ochre, animal teeth and amulets(?) -Grave 3, SW orientation, flat position, female, double grave (with 2), red ochre -Grave 4, NNW orientation, flat position, male, animal teeth, red ochre, amulets(?) -Grave 5, E orientation, flat position, child, red ochre, animal teeth and lanceted arrowhead -Grave 6, NNO orientation, crouched position, facing unknown, female -Grave 7, W orientation, flat position, male, triangular arrowhead
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